西方的传统文化对中国的影响有哪些？中国传统文化文化对中国影响大还是西方传统文化？为什么？
西方的传统文化对中国的影响有哪些？中国传统文化文化对中国影响大还是西方传统文化？为什么？
09-03-23 &
为什么说血缘构成中国文化的第一个要素？因为中国这个民族，在被“化”出来即由原始社会向文明社会过渡的时候，就和西方民族表现得非常不同。中华民族在走向文明的时候，是通过维新的道路。西周维新就是中国先民在文明初年所进行的一场最为重要的社会变革。这场变革的核心任务就是建立一个新的社会结构，后人把这种结构概括为家国一体，由家及国。它以家为基础把家的逻辑和原理伸展到国，形成一个所谓的“国家”。中国的国家和西方的country有着非常大的区别。“国家”既挣断了原始社会的氏族纽带，具有文明社会“国”的性质，但又继承和吸收了人类在迄今为止最为漫长的原始社会中所形成的氏族关系的血缘传统，以“家”为“国”的基础甚至范型。所谓“周虽旧邦，其命惟新”。显然，“国家”是“国”与“家”，即氏族社会的血缘逻辑或家的逻辑，与文明社会的国的逻辑中庸调和的产物。在西方人看来，把国和家联系在一起简直是不可思议。中国文化里的国家概念和西方是不一样的。“国”的繁体字，首先是有人口，即“口”，有了人口有土地即“一”，有了土地以后还要有保卫人民和土地的武装即“戈”，最后还要有疆界———“囗”，所有这些要素组成了“国”的繁体字———國。
   由家及国，是为“国家”，西方人在翻译的时候很难把这个意思表达出来；而我们在把西方的country翻成国家的时候，事实上也很容易丢掉国家理念当中一个最重要的东西———家。这种情况在中西方文化交流中到处可见。另一个典型的例子是“心”的文化意义。中国文化中“心”的意义到底是什么？我们现在翻译成英语的时候，有很多种表达，有的说是heart，不错，心脏；有的说是mind，也不错，是思想，当讲到心的时候，都与思想相连。但无论是heart还是mind，都难以表达“心”的全部文化意义。海外有一个著名的哲学家，叫成中英，他把“心”翻译成heart-mind，将二者结合，意思就全面多了。所以在很多情况下，中国语辞的意义要丰富得多，辩证得多
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当欧洲笼罩于基督教的黑暗之时，以伊斯兰为特征的阿拉伯帝国文明光芒璀璨，成就斐然。对于这种文明的地位，权威的科学史学家的评价是，纵向来看，它在人类历史上具有不可或缺的承前（希腊、罗马）启后（文艺复兴）的作用；横向来看，东、西方文明在此碰撞，水**融，相得益彰…… 了解一些科学史的人都知道，历史上西方学者曾广泛使用阿拉伯文，或受益于阿拉伯帝国的科学文化，许多科学著作都是用阿拉伯语撰写的，帝国在此期间也涌现出一大批著名的科学家。因此，前西德历史学家赫伯特·格特沙尔克在《震撼世界的伊斯兰教》一书中写到：“全世界都感谢阿拉伯语在传播中世纪高度发展的阿拉伯科学知识方面所带来的媒体作用……如果没有阿拉伯语这个媒介，得到这些知识是不可想象的，或者说无论如何也不会了解得那么早。” 斯塔夫理阿诺斯在《全球通史》中说：“西欧人对希腊知识已缺乏直接的了解，甚至长期不知道它的存在。因此，穆斯林这一学术成就在西欧准备重新恢复他们的研究之前，起到了保存希腊古典著作的作用。” 而作者Robert Briffault在《构建人性》中则更加明确地说：“如果没有阿拉伯人，现代的欧洲文明就根本不会出现，这是极其可能的；绝对可以肯定，如果没有他们，欧洲便不会扮演那么一种超越所有先前进步阶段角色。” “正是在阿拉伯与摩尔人文化的感召下……真正的文艺复兴才得以发生。正是西班牙而非意大利，成为欧洲再生的摇篮……” 居斯塔夫·勒朋旗帜鲜明地指出：“十字军战争不是导致学术进入欧洲的主要原因，而是通过西班牙、西西里和意大利。” 他在《阿拉伯文明》一书中写道：“阿拉伯人迅速地创立了一种与以往的许多文化有着很大差异的新兴文明。由于他们良好的政策，使许多民族接受了他们的宗教、语言和文化，连具有古老文明的埃及人、印度人也不例外，他们情愿地接受了阿拉伯人的宗教信仰、传统习惯和建筑艺术……” 《西班牙的摩尔人》的作者、英国人斯坦利·莱恩·普尔说：“西班牙在穆斯林统治下的近8个世纪里，发展成为整个欧洲文明的光辉典范——当欧洲其它地方呈现萧条的时候，这个国度的艺术、文学与科学一片繁荣。来自法国、德国与英国的求学者聚集在这里，汲取这些流淌在摩尔人的城市里的知识的甘泉。”历史上，在西班牙科尔多瓦、塞维利亚、与格拉纳达的高等学府里，云集着为数众多的基督徒与犹太学生，他们如饥似渴地向穆斯林学者学习科学，然后又把所学到的知识在欧洲播散。以下引用当时英国国王乔治二世写给西班牙哈里发希沙姆三世（公元年在位）的一封信函，他在信中请求允许派遣王族成员前往科尔多瓦大学学习。 “乔治二世——英国、高卢、瑞典及挪威的国王，致西班牙穆斯林国王哈里发希沙姆三世陛下： 我们已经获悉，贵国之科学、知识、技术与制造业甚为发达，故，鉴于我们的国家在此类方面之匮乏，及全然处于愚昧无知，我们希望获得良机，以使我们的青年人受益于贵方之成就。 我们期盼这种良机可以让我们跟随你们的脚步前进，并以知识照亮我们的人民。鄙侄女杜邦特公主及一些英国贵族女子，希望受惠于你们的学术机构（科尔多瓦大学——笔者注）。对您特许给予我们机会以实现我们的目标致以敬意。 年轻的公主将为陛下晋献一份礼物。您若能够收下我们将倍感荣幸。 落款：您顺从的仆人，乔治” 西班牙穆斯林创建的大学也是后来一些欧洲早期的大学的模范，例如阿方索八世于公元1208年建立的帕伦西亚大学与弗雷德里克二世于公元1224年建立那不勒斯大学。 尽管基督教世界翻译穆斯林的科学著作在诸如巴塞罗纳、里昂或图卢兹等地进行，但是占据首要位置的无疑是西班牙的托莱多。这座从公元8世纪初至11世纪的3~4百年之间由摩尔人穆斯林治理的城市，开始成为整个欧洲的文化中心，其声望尤其是在翻译工作大规模开展的12世纪以来，持续相当长的一段时间。 在托莱多被译成拉丁语的穆斯林科学著作应该有几百部以上。事实上，欧洲也因此而涌现出诸杰拉德、普拉托、阿德拉尔德、罗杰·贝肯、罗伯特·切斯特，以及荷尔曼等著名的翻译家。他们云集于此，如饥似渴地从事科学著作的翻译工作[在那些翻译家来到托莱多之前，那里甚至还出现了后来成为罗马教皇的吉伯特（公元940～1003年）的身影。]。《全球通史》也提到这些翻译家，它写到：“12、13世纪，这里的翻译家有犹太人、西班牙人和欧洲各地的外国学者。”可以这样说，他们来到托莱多的目的只有一个――尽一切可能获取穆斯林的科学知识。 自公元12世纪阿拉伯帝国学者的著作（和希腊、罗马著作的阿拉伯语译本）被大批译成拉丁语及其它欧洲语言以来，欧洲各大学将它们作为教科书长达几个世纪。 科学史告诉我们，阿拉伯帝国的科学技术与文化承前启后，独步中古。如果将《构建人性》加以引申，人们就会明确无误地看到，彼时其科学技术与文化水平代表当时人类文明的最高境界。 阿拉伯帝国文明在科学上多有建树，而且正是通过广大科学家与学者的创造性劳动，古代印度、希腊、波斯与罗马的科学巨著得以矫正并保存。 欧洲文艺复兴的大师们从阿拉伯语书写的这些古代希腊与罗马巨著开始，点燃了复兴的火炬。如果没有崇尚科学的穆斯林的辛勤劳动，今天就不会有人看到欧几里德的《几何原本》了；因为中世纪笼罩在欧洲的基督教的黑暗几乎摧毁了一切古代希腊与罗马的科学文化典籍，尽管衰败的拜占廷可能剩下典籍中的片言只语。不要轻视阿拉伯帝国科学的作用——当苟延残喘的拜占廷几乎完全隔绝欧洲通向东方的道路之时，中国的“四大发明”是经由当时在阿拉伯伊斯兰文明影响下的西班牙、西西里和法国部分地区，传往整个意大利乃至欧洲的；而奠定今日科学基础的文艺复兴，正是始于欧洲的这些地方。 对此，Arnold和Guillaume编撰的《伊斯兰的遗产》有所佐证。该书写到：“回顾历史，我们可以这样讲，伊斯兰（医学与）科学映射着希腊的光芒，当希腊科学的白昼流逝，伊斯兰（医学与）科学的光辉犹如月亮，照耀着中世纪欧洲最黑暗的夜晚……因为伊斯兰（医学与）科学指引或引导了那场伟大的运动（文艺复兴），所以我们有理由宣称这种文明依然与我们同在。” 流传下来阿拉伯帝国科学的历史文稿有时是很粗略的，这使得一些人产生这样一种错觉，即它的科学只不过是对希腊科学在欧洲科学革命之前的一种保存。出现这种错觉的原因恐怕还在于，中世纪阿拉伯帝国的科学著作几乎都是以阿拉伯语书写的，而今天的科学编年史学家真正精通这种科学语言的已经不多了。另外，一些被翻译成拉丁语或其它语言的书籍，随着时间的推移，读者已然很难分辨它们的渊源了。还有一个原因可能在于，一些人有意或无意地进行了“模糊”处理。 但是，一些史学家力图歪曲史实，认为阿拉伯（伊斯兰）文化“只不过是希腊、罗马文化的一点余光。”其实，这种蓄意抹杀阿拉伯帝国的科学地位与成就的鼓噪，不是处于无知，就是缘于偏见。而事实是足以胜过诡辩的。 诸如Otto Neugebauer与Delambre之类所谓的学者甚至走的更远。例如在他们的报告里，伊斯兰天文学仿佛根本就不曾存在过，穆斯林也从来不曾凝视过星空，尽管那时的繁星也是像今天一样俯瞰着大地。而Pierre Duhem的态度则可谓是滑稽可笑了。按着他的逻辑，中世纪的穆斯林在天文学方面同时身兼两重身份――一是疯狂焚烧托勒密书稿的暴徒，二是毫无建树地模仿希腊科学的抄写员。可是，一个抄写员如何能够眷抄一部已经投进烈焰的书稿？这就好比让Duhem先生用自己的脚掌抽自己的嘴巴一样困难。此类荒唐的逻辑也不乏追随者，他们甚至企图使人类的天文学由托勒密直接蛙跳到哥白尼，而这一步蛙跳几乎有1500年的距离。先后担任国英国欧文学院与曼彻斯特大学历史系教授的陶特说：“看到还有人相信，一个人能够从伯里克利或奥古斯都时代一步蛙跳到美第奇和路易14时代，这实在令人痛心……从头开始固然好，但是我们根本不能随意在某个时候停下来，跳跃过数百年，然后重新开始。” 现在来戳穿一个关于穆斯林征服者焚毁亚力山大图书馆的寓言故事，以便使“疯狂焚烧托勒密书稿”这样的故事就此止步，也为让Duhem之类的“伪术士”在天真的读者面前被彻底揭去伪装的面皮。 居斯塔夫·勒朋的《阿拉伯文明》有这样一段文字：“所谓的焚烧亚力山大图书馆这样荒蛮的行为并不符合阿拉伯人或穆斯林的道德准则。人们会产生这样的质疑――那些杰出的学者们长久以来怎么会相信这样一种传说？这种传说遭到我们这个时代唾弃，根本没有再去讨论必要了。没有什么事情比证明在伊斯兰征服世界以前，是基督徒自己焚毁了异教徒的书籍更容易了。” 奇怪的是，那些穆斯林征服时代或稍晚一些的、人才济济的历史学家，没有一人留下对焚烧亚力山大图书馆事件的片言只语的记载，倒是到了13世纪突然冒出3个人讲起这个故事，其中尤以一个人叫Ibnul al’Ibri（意思是“犹太人的儿子”）的说法经不起推敲。按照这位“犹太人的儿子”的说法，那些被焚烧的70万册书被亚力山大的4000座浴室当作燃料连续燃烧了半年的时间。但是，这种说法却出现了简单的算数问题――如果把按此人所说的70万册书分送到4000座浴室，那么每个浴室只能分到175本，而要想让这175本书连续焚烧半年，则每本书至少需要持续燃烧1天以上。况且多达70万册这一数量本身就是令人无法相信的。由此听众便有理由怀疑这个“犹太人的儿子”讲述的“寓言”故事的真实性了。事实上亚力山大图书馆倒真是被放了两次大火，一次在公元前48年，放火的是大名鼎鼎的朱利斯·恺撒的舰队，另一次在公元391年，适值罗马帝国狄奥多西统治时期。莫非“犹太人的儿子”以那两次放火为蓝本，杜撰了一个寓言故事？ 约翰·威廉·德雷珀在《欧洲知识发展》一书中仗义执言说道：“欧洲文献故意系统性地抹杀穆斯林的科学成就，对此我不得不表示悲愤。但是我肯定，他们再也不会继续被隐瞒下去了。建立在宗教敌视与民族自负基础上的偏见永远都不会长久。” 在乔治·萨顿的《科学史导引》中有这样一段话——“有一些荣耀的名字足以让人们想起，在西方是没有同时代的人物能够与这些名字相匹敌的……加长由这些名字组成的豪华的名单也并不是困难的。如果有人告诉你说中世纪的科学没有什么进步，那么就把这些名字读给他听，他们所有人都是在一段不太长的时期内取得辉煌成就的——公元750~1100年。” 让我们回味一下乔治·萨顿的一句话的含义吧——“一个自以为是和虚伪的哲学家不可能理解伊斯兰的智慧，同样也应受到谴责。” 前文引用的文献作者皆为研究科学史的著名学者。另外，也有一些“大众化”人物所言亦可稽考。但愿这些政治家或政客不是不学无术、胡说八道。 《自然辩证法》一书指出：“古代留传下欧几里德几何学和托勒密大阳系；阿拉伯留传下十进位制、代数学的发端，现代数字和炼金术；基督教的中世纪什么也没有留下。”这是马克思主义的创始人之一恩格斯对科学史的评价。 美国前总统尼克松在《抓住时机》中说：“当欧洲还处于中世纪的蒙昧状态的时候，伊斯兰文明正经历着它的黄金时代……几乎所有领域的关键性进展都是穆斯林取得的……当欧洲文艺复兴时期的伟人们把知识的边界往前开拓的时候，他们所以能眼光看到更远，是因为他们站在穆斯林巨人的肩膀上。” 西方音乐界及作曲界则忌讳“9”，因为贝多芬创作了举世闻名的9大交响曲后辞世。此后舒伯特、德沃夏克、威廉斯等名作曲家也都在写完9首交响曲后与世长辞。 有趣的是，奥地利作曲家马勒在写完八首交响乐，并为之编号后有意继续写，但又想逃过“9”字，就写了一首不编号的交响曲，果然安然无恙，但后来他又创作了一首交响乐，将之编号为9，不幸在尚未编写十号交响乐前就死了。 在日本，忌讳“9”字，是“9”的发音与“苦”相近 中西方传统文化比较机电0601 朱志辉 摘要：中西方传统文化的差异有各种方面的原因，虽然可能不是根本原因，但在我看来两种文化的代表阶级的不同对其差异有着决定性影响—西方是平民阶级文化，而中国是士大夫阶级文化。关键词：阶级文化 唯美 中西方 差异 平等 客观从来学习，语文都很差，但所幸教育偏理，所以文史向来对我做与休闲，久之，也就产生了浓厚的兴趣，虽说语文差，但我自信更加享受文史，享受中国的传统文化，我选择写《中西方传统文化比较》，本来是想突出中国传统的美，但确是正视了其许多陋习。中国，作为东方文化的发源，有着古典优雅之美，这是我最欣赏。曾经看过评论说中国文化有女性的含蓄细致，而西方文化则是男性的豪放直爽，并且在我看来西方人的丑陋表现在野蛮霸道，而中国是无赖任性。虽然不尽其然，但还是很有道理的。美有许多种表达方式，但我最喜欢中国这种。对比西方，有许多普遍的明显差异，中国人（指古人）重情，西方人重理，中国人重义，西方人重利。虽然中国有君子喻于义，小人喻于利的说法，但我丝毫没有贬低西方人的意思，所以那些师夷派也不必强言以加之了。情和理并不冲突，但是中国向来是少理的，并且往往将二者混淆。当然我急切想表达中国的知情之美，但越是喜欢传统，对其陋习也就越感心痛。一直对西方文化不怎么感兴趣，对于传说中的莎翁，也不怎么喜欢，特别是由于语文课本上那张他本人的画像。他那本《哈姆雷特》我只是在语文课本上见过，而且是与奸商打官司的那段，我根本看不出什么所谓的割肉不能掉血是什么高级的逻辑，而且他们已经被自己创造的法律给异化，变态似的理论，变态似的狡辩。而且传说中的世间公道，往往依靠臭名昭著的律师。相较而言中国则是不怎么讲理，主观性较强。西方人重理，尊重客观事实，尊重其他人权利。根本上是为了有一个稳定的秩序来保护他们的私有财产，西方人普遍是大众教育，他们的文化也比较偏向平民创作，而中国大多是因学致仕的官员士大夫创作。国外整体一直以来最高领袖是国王，中国是皇帝，在民主方面，中国人可谓做的一塌糊涂。国外的平民文化充分的体现的平民阶级的思想，广大的下层平民一般没有什么特殊权利，他们只是渴望保障，平等，和人权，他们必须要为自己的生活而努力去奔波，民以食为天，下层人民对物质的渴望是急迫的。并且由于无以为靠，上层阶级特权并不是太多，所以他们更懂得靠自己的力量。西方人拜上帝，认为天赋人权。我没亚洲却一直是君权神授，普天之下，莫非王土；率土之滨,莫非王臣。专制统治已经将平民的私有和权力剥夺一空。更可怕的是长期以来的愚民统治，使下层人民根本就是奴隶般的生活着，对于少数知识分子，给他们许多特权，只用来管制平民和歌功颂德。目不识丁的下层人民的文化得不到反映和传播，但衣食无忧的士大夫们却制造出了唯美的精神世界，他们物质上充裕，并且往往有许多特权，这样他们就去研究一些更接近于灵魂的东西，更接近人类感知的东西。而对于下层群众，他们贫困的只剩下精神，所以同样用士大夫创造的东西来麻痹自己，憧憬生活。当然近代以来我们必须推行大众教育，这是人类文明的必然，我们消除了阶级压迫，人人平等，中国文化的主题也必然转到广大的平民。更加重视物质和经济发展。所以西潮涌进，这与中国文化的断代也是有关系的，在我看来也并不亚于近代的某些运动和革命。中国几千年传统文化的影响是深重的，所有人翻身后都渴望自由的权利，但他们往往有会渴望成为统治阶级，几千年的官本位思想，中国人不会正视自己和别人。在绘画及雕刻艺术上，西方人的透视思想和解剖学之精准，中国人是无法企及的，在中国往往讲究神似，一张国画，你往往看不出是在什么角度画的，当然我认为是中国的美啦，但定位不准并不往往是好的，中国人或多或少的不会正视其他人，几千年来人们推崇的隐士，就是自以为是，觑视对手的典型，在古代中国，虽然制度是不公平的，但是规则既然定出，你要么成功要么失败，怎么还会高喊着去隐居呢，中国不平等，所以所有人都在精神上站在了天平的最高点。不想不平等的竞争，实际上比他们更不公平的还有许多。回避不好，临死喊着Freedom的苏格兰人绝对不允许自己唯一一次生存的权利就过早的出局。对于罪犯的惩治上，西方往往是处罚物质财产，而中国多在精神和肉体上摧残人，在我看来这是致命的野蛮，中国人很难去体会别人，特别是上层的高官，即便是人人称赞的好官，也常常主观臆断，不了解实情，以为只要无私就是正确。人民评价官员也往往论清廉，对其业绩好差议论较少。西方人对于上层阶级称之为贵族，而我们中国人的称谓就不那么雅观了。这还表现了，西方的阶级界线主要是靠物质来衡量，甚至爵位可以公开买卖，因为爵位本来就没什么特权，体现了阶级的模糊性。而中国人完全是在心态上也形成阶级的烙印。无论如何每个人保持一种贵族心态并不再那么是坏事，几千年的士大夫文化，传给了我们家国天下的雄心。每个人都以救世主的心态活着，希望现实中我们会做的好一些。现在中国的制度已经改变，在传统与现代的冲击中，我们会更容易剔除传统中的糟粕，相信我们会在一种平等自由的氛围中，每个人的人权得到保障，尊重客观，静静的享受这我们的幸福。希望希望。传统文化将我们的精神发展到了极致，精神是最接近于幸福，接近于美的东西。那种唯美的东方情调，简直是美的淋漓尽致，美的落花流水。乳燕碰，雏莺忙，新妇贴新窗，绿浓花深满庭芳，好诗有人唱。本文全部手输，盖本人当时思想，下一秒某些句子过期，望无抵国毁人之嫌。西元二零零八年五月二十七日中午。时间关系未检查输入错误，感谢老师教诲，祝福中国更好。结束语：中国传统文化就像是一位羞涩任性的美人，就像高傲的大家闺秀，有些蛮横与无知，当然这样并不是任何时候都可爱，她的主观性有时给人民带来了深重的灾难。而西方人则是锱铢必较的小市民，整天谈论着利益和法律，有点像上海小男人。中国传统文化有其独特魅力，是西方人不能理解也不可企及的，是我们的天赋本能。不会丢，也丢不了。
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中国传统文化与西方文化的比较 中国传统文化的根本特点是：维护专制，压抑人性。西方文化的根本特点是，注重建设公平公正的社会，解放人性。 中国传统文化偏重实际、轻视思辩。不喜欢探究与实际无关的抽象概念，而把对人际关系的注意和研究放在首要地位。中国传统文化的核心，就是人世伦理。中国传统文化的恶果之一，就是使中国人变得虚伪自私，圆滑世故。 西方文化重视实际，也重视精神的价值。尤其重视哲学和宗教，把对美好社会和人类本性的探究放在重要地位。西方文化尊重人，西方文化的核心，是社会伦理和人道主义价值观。西方文化的成果建成了一个较为公平、公正的社会。 中国传统文化，在人与社会的关系上，主张人适应社会，关注的是人的处世，是人的修行。然而离开美好社会，去适应一个专制社会，结果只能造就一代又一代萎靡畸形的中国人。中国传统文化结晶出一套关于畸形人格的个人伦理。 西方文化，在人与社会的关系上，主张社会适应人，关注的是社会的公平，社会的改造，让社会符合人性。所以，既改造了社会，又促进了人性的解放和人格的健康发展。西方文化结晶出一套关于公平社会的社会伦理。 今天，中国人要建立自己的精神大厦。靠几片破旧的秦砖汉瓦，决然不行。我们必须清醒地认识，两种文化的优劣，以西方文化的精华(也就是现在所说的普世价值)为主，同时吸取中华文化中有价值的东西，才能让中华文化真正地崛起。 一公斤和一厘米, 哪个温度高? 这显然是一个很无厘头的问题,一个稍微有点常识的人都不会费心去讨论的问题.理由很简单: 公斤和厘米,根本就不在一个度量单位下,怎么比较? 可是,类似的逻辑,仅仅是看起来稍微复杂了一点,就让几位貌似是高手的ID们争论不休了.他们争论的是: 西方文化和中国文化,哪个更先进? 窃以为,自然科学和社会科学的一个重要区别,就在于自然科学存在一个独立于学科之外的客观的衡量比较体系,也就是数字的&多&和&少&. 100比99多,无论从物理意义上,化学意义上,还是信息学意义上,100都比99多.所以,从自然科学角度,我们可以比较哪种机器的工作效率高--每小时生产出的零件&多&的那一台; 也可以比较哪个国家的经济表现优秀--每年GDP&多&的那一个. 但是,社会科学并不存在这样一个客观的,独立于学科之外的衡量比较体系.孔子和柏拉图谁更伟大? 曹雪芹和莎士比亚谁的文采好? 各位可以就类似问题继续争论,本人很乐观很自信地估计,各位争论到胡子白了也争论不出来个所以然.正如各位现在正在津津乐道地争论的那个话题: 西方文化和中国文化,哪个更先进? 和本文一开始举的那个例子一样,比较西方文化和中国文化谁更先进,就象比较一公斤和一厘米哪个温度高.在不存在同样的度量单位的情况下,这样的比较无疑是很可笑的. 文化本身,是含有对自身认可的度量衡的.比如中国文化,就更看重感性方面的人自身的修身养性,以及与大自然和和谐互动;而西方文化,则更偏重于理性方面的效率最大化. 因此,以西方文化的度量衡来看,西方文化当然是优于中国文化的,因为它比中国文化更有效率. 同理,以中国文化的度量衡来看,中国文化则远远先进于西方文化,因为它比西方文化更和谐. 正如我们看到,持有&西方文化先进论&的朋友们,有力论据就是西方的物质文明极大发达;而他们的反方,则坚持认为中国文化在&德&的方面占有至高点. 这不是鸡同鸭讲吗? 这不是两帮人在埋头研究&一公斤和一厘米哪个温度高&吗? 一方说: 公斤的温度高,因为公斤重! 另一方说: 厘米温度高,因为厘米长!
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西方法治的形成是多种文化两千多年来不断碰撞、吸纳和融合的产物,导致这一传统形成的因素和条件也是多方面的.其中,古希腊罗马哲学思维中的理性精神、人文关怀和正义观对西方法治传统影响深远.　　当我们说正负雅典精神是一对时代范畴时，是对西方文明持一种演化或进化的观点。从古至今，西方文明一直是在变化着。14、15世纪欧洲的宗教裁判所合法地烧死了成千上万持有异端思想的人，而现在宗教信仰自由已成了西方文明的基本内容；中世纪时基督教会一直禁止收取利息，搞得那些意大利银行家在贷款时一个个像作贼似的，但现在贷款收取利息不是变成天经地义的了吗？现在西方人沸沸扬扬地要禁止克隆人，但谁能说500年以后，欧洲人看克隆人，会不会就像今天他们看试管婴儿一样的平常呢？不仅是西方文明，东方文明也是在变化着的，在伊斯兰国家中，戴面纱的女性不是在逐步减少吗？　　文明和狗不同，一只纯种的德国牧羊犬因为基因优良，其多少代子孙都可以因此而性能卓越。可是任何一个较大地域范围的文明，都是从野蛮愚昧开始的，她们在这一点上大同小异。按照涂尔干在《社会分工论》里的说法，她们都是从分工简单的机械团结，发展到分工合作复杂严密的有机团结；按照孔德在《实证主义哲学》里的说法，她们都是从宗教时代和军事化时代，发展到科学时代和工商业时代；按照滕尼斯（FerdinardToennies）在《GemainschaftundGesellschaft》里的说法，她们都是从乡村社会发展到城市社会。当然我们也可以说，她们都是从负雅典精神，发展到正雅典精神。而欧洲开始形成一个具有较大地域范围的统一的文明体，是从罗马帝国开始的。罗马时代，就是一个分工简单的机械团结的时代，一个宗教时代和军事化时代，一个负雅典精神的时代，一个以乡村为经济社会生活主体的时代。　　在整个西方的历史上，和中国的秦汉唐宋元明清各朝，在社会结构和社会性质上最相似的社会政治体，就是罗马帝国。罗马帝国的奥古斯都大帝，就相当于我们的秦皇汉武，我们的康熙大帝。当然，这些已不在本文的论述范围之中了。Constitution of the PRC (2004) December 4, 1982 Fifth National People's Congress adopted the fifth meeting of December 4, 1982 the National People's Congress promulgated Notice According to April 12, 1988 Seventh National People's Congress adopted the first meeting of &the People's Republic of amendment to the Constitution,& March 29, 1993 the Eighth National People's Congress adopted the first meeting of the &People's Republic of China amendment to the Constitution, &March 15, 1999 the Ninth National People's Congress adopted the second meeting of& the People's Republic of amendment to the Constitution &and the March 14, 2004 Tenth National People's Congress for the second meeting of through the &People's Republic of China Amendment to the Constitution& as amended Contents Preamble Chapter Master Chapter II the basic rights and obligations Chapter III national institutions Section I of the National People's Congress Section II, the President of People's Republic of China Section III of the State Council Section IV of the Central Military Commission Section V of the local People's Congress at all levels and local people's governments at all levels Section VI of the organs of self-government in ethnic autonomous areas VII People's Court and People's Procuratorate Chapter IV of the national flag, national anthem, national emblem, the capital of Preamble China is the world's oldest countries in the world. Chinese people of all ethnic groups work together to create a brilliant culture, have a glorious revolutionary tradition. After 1840, becoming China's feudal semi-colonial, semi-feudal country. The Chinese people for national independence, national liberation and democracy and freedom for the heroic struggle fought. The twentieth century, China has undergone great changes in history. 1911 Revolution led by Dr. Sun Yat-sen, abolished the feudal monarchy, the creation of the Republic of China. However, the Chinese people against imperialism and feudalism, the historical task is not yet complete. In 1949, Chairman Mao Zedong as leader of the Communist Party of China led the Chinese people of all ethnic groups, after a long and arduous armed struggle and other forms of struggle later, and finally the overthrow of imperialism, feudalism and bureaucrat-capitalism, rule, and achieved a great victory for the new-democratic revolution, the establishment of the People's Republic of China. Since then, Chinese people have the powers of the state, to become masters of their country. People's Republic of China after the establishment of the progressive realization of our society by the new democratic transition to socialism. The socialist transformation of private ownership of means of production has been completed and the system of exploitation of man by man has been eliminated, the socialist system has been established. Led by the working class, based on the alliance of workers and peasants, the people's democratic dictatorship, in essence the dictatorship of the proletariat has been consolidated and developed. Chinese people and the Chinese People's Liberation Army defeated the imperialist, hegemonic aggression, sabotage and armed provocations, and safeguard national independence and security, and enhance the national defense. Economic development has made significant achievements, independent and relatively complete industrial system of socialism has basically taken shape, and agricultural production significantly. Education, science, culture, etc. With the great cause of socialist ideological education has achieved remarkable results. The majority of people's lives have been greatly improved. The victory of China's new democratic revolution and the achievements of the socialist cause, the Communist Party of China led the Chinese people of all ethnic groups, in Marxism-Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought under the guidance of adhering to the truth, correcting errors and to overcome many difficulties and achieved. China will remain the primary stage of socialism. The fundamental task is to follow the socialist road with Chinese characteristics, to concentrate its effort on socialist modernization. Chinese people of all ethnic groups will continue under the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party, Marxism-Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought, Deng Xiaoping Theory and &Three Represents& under the guidance of adhering to the people's democratic dictatorship, adhere to the socialist road, persist in reform and opening up, constantly improve the social and the system, the development of the socialist market economy, develop socialist democracy, improve socialist legal system, self-reliance, hard work, the progressive realization of industry, agriculture, national defense and the modernization of science and technology to promote the material civilization, political civilization and spiritual civilization coordination development to build China into a prosperous, democratic and civilized socialist country. In China, the exploiting classes had been eliminated as a class, but class struggle in a certain range will be a long time. Hostile to the Chinese people and undermine China's socialist system and domestic and foreign hostile forces and hostile elements, we must fight. People's Republic of China and Taiwan is part of the sacred territory. To complete the great cause of reunification of the motherland, including Taiwan compatriots of all Chinese people, the sacred duty. The cause of socialist construction must rely on the workers, peasants and intellectuals, unite all forces that can be united. In the long-term process of revolution and construction, has been formed, led by the Communist Party of China, various democratic parties and the participation of various people's organizations, including all socialist workers, builders of the socialist cause, support for socialism and patriots supporting China's reunification patriots broadest patriotic united front, this united front will continue to consolidate and develop. Chinese People's Political Consultative are broadly representative of the united front organization, in the past played an important role in the history of the future in the country's political life, social life and activities for Friendship with Foreign Countries, in the socialist modernization drive, safeguard national unity and solidarity the struggle, it will further play an important role. CPC-led multi-party cooperation and political consultation system will be long-term existence and development. People's Republic of China is the common people of all ethnic groups to create a unified multi-ethnic country. Equality, unity and mutual assistance has been established socialist ethnic relations, and will continue to be strengthened. In the struggle to safeguard national unity, it is necessary to oppose the majority nationalism, mainly Han chauvinism, but also against the local nationalism. Countries to make every effort to promote national and common prosperity of all ethnic groups. China's achievements in revolution and construction with the support of the people of the world can not be separated from. China's future is the future of the world closer together. China adheres to an independent foreign policy, insist on mutual respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity, mutual nonaggression, mutual noninterference in internal affairs, equality and mutual benefit, peaceful coexistence and development of diplomatic relations with other countries and economic an firm in their opposition to the Empire , and hegemony, colonialism, with the unity of the peoples of the world in support of the oppressed nations and developing countries to achieve and safeguard national independence, the development of the just struggle of the national economy, to safeguard world peace and promoting human progress and efforts. The legal form of the Constitution of the Chinese people of all ethnic groups to confirm the outcome of the struggle to provide for the basic system of the country and the fundamental task is the country's basic law, and has supreme legal authority. People of all nationalities, all state organs and armed forces, all political parties and social organizations, business organizations, enterprises, must be the activities of the constitution as the fundamental norms of human dignity and responsibility to uphold the constitution to ensure that the duties of the implementation of the Constitution. Chapter Master The first is the People's Republic of China led by the working class, based on the alliance of workers and peasants, the people's democratic dictatorship of socialist state. The socialist system is the basic system of People's Republic of China. To prohibit any organization or individual to undermine the socialist system. The second People's Republic of China all power belongs to the people. The people exercise state power through the National People's Congress and Local People's Congress at all levels. People in accordance with the law, by various ways and forms, management of state affairs, manage economic and cultural undertakings, the management of social affairs. People's Republic of China the third country institutions the principle of democratic centralism. National People's Congress and Local People's Congress at various levels by the democratically elected, responsible to the people, subject to their supervision. The state administrative organs, judicial organs, the prosecution produced by the People's Congress, it is responsible, subject to its supervision. Central and local terms of the division of national institutions, following the unification of the central leadership, and give full play to local initiative, the principle of enthusiasm. Article IV of the National People's Republic of China are equal. The State protects the lawful rights of ethnic minorities and the interests of all ethnic groups to maintain and develop the equality, unity and mutual assistance relationship. The prohibition of any discrimination and oppression of the nation to prohibit the destruction of national unity and to create ethnic divisions. States, in accordance with the characteristics and needs of ethnic minorities, ethnic minority areas to help speed up economic and cultural development. Inhabited by various ethnic groups exercising regional autonomy in place, the establishment of self-government bodies, the exercise of autonomy. The autonomous areas are inalienable part of People's Republic of China. Of all nationalities have the freedom to use and develop their own spoken and written language of freedom, to preserve or reform their own customs. The implementation of the Fifth People's Republic of China law, and build a socialist country ruled by law. The socialist legal system to safeguard national unity and dignity. All legal, administrative or local rules and regulations shall contravene the Constitution. All state organs and armed forces, all political parties and social organizations, business organizations, enterprises must comply with the Constitution and the law. All in violation of the Constitution and the law must be investigated. Any organization or individual may have beyond the Constitution and the law. Sixth People's Republic of China's socialist economic system is based on the socialist public ownership of means of production, that is, collective ownership by the whole people and the working masses. Socialist public ownership supersedes the system of exploitation of man by man, and doing our best to implement, the principle of distribution according to work. Countries in the primary stage of socialism, uphold the public ownership is dominant and diverse forms of ownership of the common development of the basic economic system, adhere to distribution according to work is dominant and a variety of modes of distribution coexist system. Article VII of the state-owned economy, that is owned socialist economy, is the leading force in the national economy. The State guarantees the consolidation of state-owned economy and development. Article VIII of the implementation of the rural collective economic organizations, based on the household land contract system, the double-EC sub-operating system combination. In rural areas of production, supply and marketing, credit, consumer and other forms of cooperation in economy, the socialist economy under collective ownership by the working people. To participate in the rural collective economic organizations of the workers, have the right to the limits prescribed by law operators自留地, retention Shan, in household sideline production and raise privately owned livestock. Cities and towns in the handicraft, industrial, construction, transport, commerce, service sector industries such as various forms of cooperative economy is a socialist economy under collective ownership by the working people. National urban and rural collective economic organizations to protect the legitimate rights and interests, encouragement, guidance and assistance to the collective economic development. Article IX mineral, water, forests, mountains, grasslands, land, beaches and other natural resources are owned by the state, that by law belong to the collective of all the forests and mountains, grassland, wasteland, except the beach. The State guarantees the rational use of natural resources and protects rare animals and plants. To prohibit any organization or individual by whatever means of occupation or destruction of natural resources. Article X of the land belongs to the city state. Rural and peri-urban land, except by law belongs to all the outside countries ar homestead and自留地, retention Hill, also belong to collectives. National needs in the public interest can be in accordance with the law on expropriation of land and charge or compensation. No organization or individual may appropriate, buy, sell or in any other form of illegal transfer of land. The right to use land in accordance with the provisions of the law the transfer. All use of land for organizations and individuals must be reasonable use of land. Article XI provisions of the law within the scope of the individual economy and private economy, such as non-public ownership economy, the socialist market economy is an important component of the. The state protects the individual economy and private economy, such as non-public economy of the legitimate rights and interests. The state shall encourage, support and guide the development of non-public ownership economy, and the non-public economy of supervision and management according to law. Article XII of the socialist public property is sacred and inviolable. The state protects socialist public property. To prohibit any organization or individual by whatever means of destruction or occupation of the country and collective property. Article XIII of the citizen's legitimate private property is inviolable. State protection of citizens in accordance with the law of private property and inheritance rights. National needs in the public interest can be in accordance with the law on the implementation of the private property of citizens and the collection of compensation or expropriation. [Notes] Article XIV of the country by increasing the enthusiasm of workers and technical level, the promotion of advanced science and technology, improve the economic management system and enterprise management system, implement the responsibility system for various forms of socialism, and improve labor organizations, to achieve continuous improvement in labor productivity and economic benefits, the development of social productive forces. State practice thrift and waste. Reasonable arrangements for the national accumulation and consumption, taking into account national, collective and individual interests, in the development of production, based on the gradual improvement of people's material life and cultural life. State shall establish and improve the level of economic development with social security system. Article XV of the socialist market economy countries. Countries to strengthen economic legislation, and improve macroeconomic regulation and control. State law prohibits any organization or individual to disturb the socio-economic order. Article XVI of state-owned enterprises in the framework of the law have the right to make their own decisions. State-owned enterprises in accordance with the law, through the trade unions and other forms on behalf of the General Assembly, the implementation of democratic management. Article XVII of collective economic organizations in complying with the law under the premise of independent autonomy to carry out economic activities. Collective economic organizations practice democratic management, in accordance with the law the election and removal of management, operation and management decisions on major issues. 18th People's Republic of China permits foreign enterprises and other economic organizations or individuals in accordance with the provisions of the law People's Republic of China to invest in China, with Chinese enterprises or other economic organizations to conduct various forms of economic cooperation. In China of foreign enterprises and other foreign economic organizations, as well as Sino-foreign joint venture enterprises, the People's Republic of China must comply with the law. Their legitimate rights and interests of the protection of the law by the People's Republic of China. Article XIX of the national development of the socialist educational undertakings, to improve scientific and cultural level of people across the country. Countries a variety of schools, universal primary education, the development of secondary education, vocational education and higher education and the development of pre-school education. National development of educational facilities, illiteracy, the workers, peasants, national staff and other workers to carry out political, cultural, scientific, technical, business, education, and to encourage self-taught. The state encourages the collective economic organizations, business organizations, state enterprises and other social forces are organized in accordance with the law education. Countries to promote a national Putonghua. 第二十条national development cause of the natural and social sciences, the popularization of scientific and technical knowledge, the results of scientific research and technological incentives for inventions. Article XXI national development of medical and health services, promotes modern medicine and traditional Chinese medicine, encourage and support the rural collective economic organizations, state enterprises and streets Organization organized a variety of medical and health facilities to the masses to carry out health activities to protect people's health . Developing sports in the country to carry out mass sports activities, and enhance the people's physique. Article twenty-second national development serving the people and socialism the cause of literature and art, news television, publishing and distribution utilities, libraries and other cultural centers, museums and cultural undertakings, to carry out mass cultural activities. The state protects sites, valuable cultural relics and other important historical and cultural heritage. Twenty-third article for the socialist train professionals in a variety of services, expanding the ranks of intellectuals, to create conditions to give full play to their socialist modernization construction. Article twenty-fourth through the ideal of universal education, moral education, culture, discipline and legal education in different areas in urban and rural masses in the formulation and implementation of the various codes, conventions, strengthening the construction of socialist spiritual civilization. Countries to promote love of the motherland, the people, labor, science, and the civic virtues of the people in patriotism, collectivism, internationalism and communism, dialectical materialism and historical materialism to the education, opposition to capitalism and feudalism and other decadent ideas. Twenty-fifth state to implement family planning, population growth with economic and social development plans of the country. Twenty-sixth state to protect and improve the living environment and ecological environment, prevent and control pollution and other public hazards. National organizations and to encourage afforestation, forest protection. Article twenty-seventh of all state organs to implement the principle of streamlining the implementation of the work of accountability, the implementation of staff training and appraisal system, and continuously improve the quality and efficiency, against the bureaucracy. All state organs and state staff must rely on the support of the people to keep in close contact with people, listen to people's views and suggestions, accept their supervision, and strive to serve the people. [Notes] Twenty-eighth state to maintain social order, the suppression of acts of treason and other crimes of endangering national security activities, the sanctions against the social order and undermine the socialist economy and other criminal activities, and punishes criminals and transformation. 29th People's Republic of China belongs to the people of the armed forces. Its mission is to consolidate national defense, resist aggression, defend the motherland, and defend the people's peaceful labor, participate in national construction and strive to serve the people. Countries to strengthen the revolutionary armed forces, modernization and regularization of the building, and enhance the national defense forces. 30th article of the administrative region of People's Republic of China is as follows: (A) The country is divided into provinces, autonomous region (B) Provinces and autonomous regions are divided into autonomous prefectures, counties, autonomous (C) Counties and autonomous counties are divided into townships, nationality townships and towns. Municipalities and large cities are divided into districts and counties. Autonomous prefectures are divided into counties, autonomous counties and cities. Autonomous regions, autonomous prefectures and autonomous counties are national autonomous areas. 第三十一条countries, if necessary, may establish special administrative regions. In special administrative regions shall be in accordance with the specific circumstances of the system by the National People's Congress in the law. 32nd People's Republic of China to protect foreigners in China's legitimate rights and interests of foreigners in China People's Republic of China must comply with the law. People's Republic of China for political reasons for requesting asylum to foreigners, could be given by the right of asylum. Chapter II the basic rights and obligations Article thirty-third who are People's Republic of China People's Republic of China nationality are citizens. People's Republic of China citizens are equal before the law. The state respects and safeguards human rights. Any citizens constitutional rights and the law, at the same time to fulfill the constitutional and legal obligations. 34th People's Republic of China of at least 18 years old citizens, regardless of their nationality, race, sex, occupation, family background, religious belief, education, property status, length of residence, have the right to vote and t but in accordance with the law be deprived of political rights, other than. 35th People's Republic of China citizens have freedom of speech, press, of assembly, of association, of procession and of demonstration. Citizens of the 36th People's Republic of China freedom of religious belief. Any state organ, public organization or individual shall not be mandatory citizens do not believe in religion or religion, may discriminate against religious citizens and non-religious citizens. The state protects normal religious activities. No one may make use of religion to disrupt public order, impair the health of citizens, impede the activities of the national education system. Religious bodies and religious affairs are not subject to foreign domination. 37th People's Republic of China citizens are not infringed upon personal freedom. Any citizen or approved by the People's Procuratorate or the people's court decision decided by the public security organ, free from arrest. Prohibition of unlawful detention and unlawful deprivation or other means to restrict the personal freedom of citizens, the prohibition of unlawful search of the body of citizens. 38th People's Republic of China citizens are not violated human dignity. By any means is prohibited citizens Insult, libel, false framing. 39th People's Republic of China citizens are not violated residential. The prohibition of illegal searches or illegal intrusion into residential citizens. 40th People's Republic of China citizens freedom and privacy of correspondence are protected by law. In addition to national security or the need for the investigation of crimes by the public security organs or the prosecution procedures in accordance with the law to carry out checks on the communication, no organization or individual for any reason shall not infringe on civil freedom and privacy of correspondence. Citizens of the PRC第四十一条any state organ or functionary staff have the right to criticize
for any state organ or functionary of the law staff misconduct to the relevant state organs complaints, charges or exposures of the rights, but fabrication or distortion of facts for the frame-up frame-up. For citizens complaints, charges or exposures, the state organ concerned must investigate the facts to deal with. No one may suppress and combat the retaliation. As the state organ or functionary for violation of civil rights officers who have suffered losses, in accordance with the law right to compensation. 42nd People's Republic of China citizens of the rights and obligations of labor. Countries through various means, to create conditions for employment, strengthen labor protection, the improvement of labor conditions, and in the development of production, based on the improvement of labor remuneration and benefits. Labor is the ability to work all the glorious duty of the citizens. State-owned enterprises and urban and rural collective economic organizations of the workers should be the masters of the country's attitude towards their work. The state promotes socialist labor emulation, and commends and rewards model and advanced workers. The state encourages citizens to engage in voluntary labor. National pre-employment of citizens of the necessary labor and employment training. 43rd People's Republic of China the worker has the right to rest. National development workers to rest and recuperation facilities, the provisions of workers working hours and leave system. 44th State enterprise in accordance with the law the cause of the trade union organizations, and state organs of the retirement system staff. The lives of retirees by the State and the protection of society. 45th People's Republic of China citizens in the elderly, ill or disabled, the state and society from the right to material assistance. National development for the enjoyment of these rights by citizens in need of social insurance, social relief and medical and health undertakings. National and social security disabled soldier's life, pension families of the martyrs and give preferential treatment to families of military personnel. Arrangements for national and community to help blind, deaf-mute and other citizens with disabilities work, life and education. Citizens of the 46th People's Republic of China has the right to education and obligations. Train children and young people, in the moral, intellectual and physical development. Citizens of the 47th People's Republic of China to conduct scientific research, literary and artistic creation and other cultural activities. Countries engaged in education, science, technology, literature, art and other cultural undertakings of the citizens of the creative work is good for the people, to give encouragement and help. People's Republic of China in the 48th women's political, economic, cultural, social and family life to enjoy all aspects of equal rights with men. The state protects the rights and interests of women, men and women equal pay for equal work, training and selecting women cadres. Forty-ninth article of marriage, family, mother and child are protected by the state. Both spouses have the obligation to practice family planning. Parents of minor children to raise and educate the obligations of adult children have the obligation to support and assist parents. Prohibits the destruction of freedom of marriage, the prohibition of abuse of the elderly, women and children. 50th Chinese People's Republic of China to protect the legitimate rights and interests of returned overseas Chinese and their relatives to protect the legitimate rights and interests. 第五十一条People's Republic of China citizens in the exercise of freedom and rights, must not harm national, social, collective interests of citizens and other legal freedoms and rights. Citizens of the 52nd People's Republic of China to safeguard national unity and national unity of the country's obligations. 53rd People's Republic of China citizens must abide by the Constitution and the law, keep state secrets, the Prevention of Cruelty to public property, compliance with labor discipline and compliance with public order, respect social ethics. Citizens of the 54th People's Republic of China to safeguard the motherland's security, honor and interests of the obligations, not to harm the security of the motherland, the honor and interest. Article 55th to defend the motherland, resisting aggression, People's Republic of China in each of the sacred duty of a citizen. Military service in accordance with the law and participate in the People's Republic of militias is the glorious duty of citizens. 56th People's Republic of China citizens have the obligation to pay taxes in accordance with the law. Chapter III national institutions Section I of the National People's Congress People's Republic of China 57th National People's Congress is the highest organ of state power. It is the permanent organ of the National People's Congress Standing Committee. Article 58th National People's Congress and National People's Congress Standing Committee exercise the legislative power of the state. 59th National People's Congres be the provinces, autonomous regions, municipalities and special administrative regions and the composition of the elected representatives of the armed forces. The minority should have appropriate representation. National People's Congress election by the National People's Congress Standing Committee chair. National People's Congress and the selection method places by law. 60th National People's Congres be a term of five years. National People's Congress two months before expiry of the term, the National People's Congress Standing Committee must complete the next National People's Congress elections. If elections can not be encountered in exceptional circumstances, by the National People's Congress Standing Committee to all members of more than two-thirds majority, the election could be postponed, the extension of the National People's Congress this term. In exceptional circumstances after the end of the year must be completed the next National People's Congress elections. 第六十一条the National People's Congress session held once a year, by the National People's Congress Standing Committee to convene. If the National People's Congress Standing Committee deems it necessary, or more than one-fifth of the National People's Congress proposed to convene the interim meeting of the National People's Congress. National People's Congress meetings were held, the election of officers, chaired the meeting. Sixty-second article the National People's Congress exercises the following powers and functions: (A) to am (B) to supervise the enforcement of the C (C) the formulation and revision of criminal, civil, national institutions
(D) Election of People's Republic of China Chairman, Vice-C (E) According to the nomination of the President of People's Republic of China, the decision of the State Council, Prime Minist in accordance with the nomination of the Prime Minister of the State Council, the decision of the State Council, Vice-Premiers and State Councilors, Ministers, the Commission, the Auditor General, the Secretary-Gener (F) Election of the President of the Central Military C Chairman of the Central Military Commission in accordance with the nomination of the Central Military Commission of the decision of other memb (G) Election of the Supreme People's C (H) Election of the Supreme People's P (Ix) review and approve the national economic and social development plans and report on the imp (J) examining and approving the state budget and budget (K) to alter or annul the National People's Congress Standing Committee of (Xii) approve the establishment of provinces, autonomous regions and mun (13) decided to set up a Special Administrative Re (14) to decide questi (15) should be the highest organ of state power by the exercise of other functions. Article 63rd National People's Congress the power to remove the following: (A) of the People's Republic of Chairman, Vice-C (B) of the State Council, Prime Minister, deputy prime minister, state ministers, the Commission, the Auditor General, the Secretary-G (C) of the Central Military Commission of the Central Military Commission Chairman and ot (D) the Supreme People's C (E) of the Supreme People's Procuratorate. 64th article of the amendments to the Constitution, by the National People's Congress Standing Committee, or more than one fifth of the National People's Congress proposed by the National People's Congress in more than two-thirds of all deputies of the majority. Legal and other motion by the National People's Congress adopted by a majority of all deputies. Article 65th National People's Congress Standing Committee composed of the following: Chairman, Vice chairman of a number of people, Secretary-General, Member of a number of people. The National People's Congress Standing Committee, the places should have the appropriate representative of the ethnic minorities. Election of the National People's Congress and the power to remove the National People's Congress Standing Committee members. The National People's Congress Standing Committee members shall serve as administrative, judicial and prosecutorial functions. Be the 66th National People's Congress Standing Committee of the term with the National People's Congress, the same term, which exercise their functions and powers to the next National People's Congress Standing Committee of the election of a new date. Chairman, vice-chairmen shall serve no more than two consecutive terms. Be the 67th National People's Congress Standing Committee exercise the following powers and functions: (A) to explain the Constitution and supervise (B) should be in addition to the formulation and revision of the National People's Congress enacted the la (C) of the National People's Congress in session, of the National People's Congress enacted laws to add and modify some, but not with the basic principl (D) inter (E) of the National People's Congress in session, to examine and approve the national economic and social development plan, the state budget in the implementation process must be part of (Vi) supervision of the State Council and Central Military Commission, Supreme People's Court and Supreme People's P (G) revocation of the Constitution of the State Council, the administrative laws and regulations,
(H) provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the central organ of state power established by the Constitution, laws and administrative regulations and local laws and regulations (Ix) the National People's Congress in session, in accordance with the nomination of the Prime Minister of the State Council, the decision of Ministers, the Committee Officer, Auditor-General, the Secretary-Gener (10) in the National People's Congress session, the President of the Central Military Commission in accordance with the nomination of the Central Military Commission of the decision of other memb (11) According to the draw the attention of the Supreme People's Court, the appointment and removal of vice-president of the Supreme People's Court, the judiciary, the military trial of members of the Commission and C (12) According to the Supreme People's Procuratorate of the request, the appointment and removal of the Supreme People's Procuratorate Deputy Procurator General, prosecutors, prosecutors and military members of the Commission's Procuratorate, and the approval of provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the Central People's Procuratorate of the app (13) to decide the appointment and removal of plenipotentiary re (14) has decided to conclude with foreign treaties and important agreements and the aboli (15) provides the military and diplomatic personnel in the title of class system and class system of othe (Xvi) the provisions and decided to grant the State medals (17) (18) in the National People's Congress in session, if they are subjected to armed aggression against the country or to fulfill international treaty to prevent the situation of aggression, decided to de (19) decided that a general mobilization or
(20) to decide the national or individual provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the centra (21) granted to the National People's Congress of the other terms. [Notes] Be the 68th National People's Congress Standing Committee chairman of the National People's Congress, presided over the work of the Standing Committee, convened by the National People's Congress Standing Committee meeting. Vice Chairman, the Secretary-General to assist the chairman of the work. Chairman, vice chairman, chairman of the Secretary-General of the Conference to deal with the National People's Congress Standing Committee on the important day-to-day work. Be the 69th National People's Congress Standing Committee of the National People's Congress is responsible for and report on their work. Be the 70th National People's Congress to establish national committees, the Law Commission, the Financial and Economic Committee, the Education, Science Culture and Health Committee, the Foreign Affairs Committee, Overseas Chinese Affairs Committee, and other need to set up a special committee. The National People's Congress session, the special committee by the National People's Congress Standing Committee's leadership. Various special committees of the National People's Congress and National People's Congress Standing Committee, under the leadership of research, deliberations and the preparation of the motion. 第七十一条National People's Congress and National People's Congress Standing Committee, when deemed necessary, can be organized on specific issues the Commission of Inquiry and the Commission of Inquiry report, the resolution accordingly. 　　Commission of Inquiry to investigate the time all the relevant state organs, social organizations and citizens have an obligation to provide it with the necessary materials. Article 72nd NPC and the NPC Standing Committee members have the right procedures in accordance with the law, proposed separately belong to the National People's Congres National People's Congres and the terms of reference of the Standing Committee's motion. Article 73rd National People's Congress in the National People's Congress session, the National People's Congress Standing Committee members during a meeting in the Standing Committee is entitled to in accordance with the law of procedure or of the State Council, ministries of the State Council, the Committee's question case. By the question of authority must be responsible for answer. Be the 74th National People's Congress, by the National People's Congress permitted the Bureau of the Conference, the National People's Congress in the intersessional period by the National People's Congress Standing Committee of the permit, from arrest or criminal trials. Be the 75th National People's Congress in the National People's Congress meetings and vote on the floor, from legal action. Be the 76th National People's Congress must play an exemplary role in abiding by the Constitution and the law, keep state secrets, and to participate in their production, work and social activities to assist the implementation of the Constitution and the law. NPC deputies should be elected with the units and people keep in close touch, listen to and reflect the opinions and demands of the people, and strive to serve the people. 第七十七条National People's Congress elected by the supervisory unit. The original electoral units have the right procedures in accordance with the law to remove the elected representatives of the units. Be the 78th National People's Congress and National People's Congress Standing Committee of the organization and working procedures prescribed by law. Section II, the President of People's Republic of China 79th People's Republic of China President, Vice-Chairman of the National People's Congress elections. The right to vote and to stand for election in at least 45 years of age can be selected as the People's Republic of China People's Republic of China Chairman, Vice-Chairman. People's Republic of China Chairman, Vice-Chairman of each term of office of the National People's Congress with a term of the same, shall serve no more than two consecutive terms. People's Republic of China President of the 80th National People's Congress in accordance with the decision and the National People's Congress Standing Committee's decision to announce the law, the appointment and removal of the State Council, Prime Minister, deputy prime minister, state ministers, the Commission, the Auditor General, the Secretary-General, awarded state medals and honorary titles, published an amnesty, declared a state of emergency, declare a state of war, issued a mobilization order. 第八十一条Chairman, on behalf of People's Republic of China People's Republic of China to conduct the affairs of state activities, acceptan according to the National People's Congress Standing Committee's decision to dispatch and recall plenipotentiary representatives abroad, ratifies and abrogates treaties and important agreement. Vice-Chairman of the 82nd People's Republic of China to assist the Chairman in the work. People's Republic of China Vice-Chairman of the commission by the President, the President can act as part of the terms of reference. 83rd People's Republic of China President, Vice-Chairman of the exercise of powers to the next National People's Congres elected Chairman, Vice-Chairman until his inauguration. Absence of the 84th President of the People's Republic of China, the successor to the President by the Vice-President posts. People's Republic of China Vice-President becomes vacant when the National People's Congress election. People's Republic of China President, Vice-President becomes vacant all the time, by the National People's Congres- in the by-election before the National People's Congress Standing Committee Chairman Deputy chairman temporarily. Section III of the State Council 第八十五条People's Republic of China State Council, namely the Central People's Government, is the highest organ of state power of the executive arm, is the highest state administrative organs. 86th article of the State Council, composed of the following: Prime Minister, Deputy Prime Minister a number of people, State a number of people, Ministers, Director of the Commission, Auditor-General, Secretary-General. The Premier of the State Council. Ministries, the implementation of the ministerial committee, director of accountability. The organization of the State Council by law. Be the 87th term of the State Council with the National People's Congress for the same period. Prime Minister, Deputy Prime Minister, State Councilor shall serve no more than two consecutive terms. Be the 8