From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Lassen National Forest is a
of 1,700 square miles (4,300 km2) in northeastern . It is named after pioneer , who mined, ranched and promoted the area to emigrant parties in the 1850s.
Lassen National Forest is located about 80 miles (130 km) east of . It is generally bounded by Sierra Nevada mountain range to the south, the Modoc Plateau to the east and California's Central Valley to the west. The forest is in parts of , , , , and
counties. Forest headquarters is located in . There are local
district offices in , , and Susanville.
The forest was formed in 1905 when it was named one of the National Forest Reserves, which evolved into the National Forest system.
The forest was first named the Lassen Peak Forest Reserve because of , a
which is in the southernmost portion of the Cascade Range volcanoes. Mt. Lassen erupted with explosive force in 1915. The forest surrounds . The forest has two major river systems as well as many lakes, cinder cones and lava flows.
Surveys estimate the forest contains 92,000 acres (370 km2) of . Sierra Nevada mixed conifer forests ( (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii),
(Pinus ponderosa), and
(Abies concolor)),
(Pinus jeffreyi) forests,
(Abies magnifica) forests, and
(Pinus contorta) forests are the most common types. It is a major source of lumber products.
There are three officially designated
within Lassen National Forest that are part of the . A small portion of one extends onto land that is managed by the
(as indicated).
(partly BLM)
Lassen National Forest is also the site of significant events in California history:
was the refuge of the "last wild Indian",[]
was one of first protected "primitive areas" decades before the federal wilderness system was established, and the volcanic explosion of Mt. Lassen was the first eruption to be witnessed and photographed in the history of the continental United States.
On Labor Day 1911, a Native American was discovered outside the slaughterhouse in . , as he came to be known, became a celebrity. He lived his remaining years at the University of California's Anthropology Museum on Parnassus Heights in San Francisco, under the sponsorship of anthropologist . The university had no protocol for keeping a living museum exhibit, so Kroeber arranged for Ishi's employment as assistant janitor.
Ishi was , the southern-most division of the
and had spent the majority of his life in hiding in the rugged Deer Creek territory north of Oroville. After his discovery, he would not disclose his name. Ishi, the name given by Kroeber, was the Yahi word for man. Kroeber believed that cultural etiquette prevented Ishi from disclosing his name.
In 1908, a utility company crew surprised the small band of survivors in their camp. Ishi and the three others fled. When Ishi was discovered outside the slaughterhouse, he was alone, his hair burned short in mourning.
Ishi died in Berkeley in 1916 of . In 1984 Congress established the 41,100-acre (16,600 ha) Ishi Wilderness in the dry, rugged, volcanic terrain, where the last band of Southern Yanas had sought refuge. (Visitors to this wilderness are advised by the United States Forest Service to visit only during cooler months because of a lack of water during the summer.)
A year before Ishi's death, Mt. Lassen exploded. Mt. Lassen is officially recognized as Lassen Peak by the . Before the eruption on May 22, 1915, the smoking volcano became a tourist draw. Today, within Lassen Volcanic National Park, the area surrounding the volcano is known as the Devastated Area.
An ancient volcano, known as
is believed to have been much larger than Lassen Peak. Its explosion is responsible for the topography of the national forest and the national park: a volcanic rim, with elevations beginning at 6,000 feet (1,800 m) above sea level.
A rock mesa in Lassen National Forest, Caribou Wilderness, California
The third historical resource is the 20,000-acre (8,100 ha) Caribou Wilderness immediately east of the National Park. Caribou Wilderness received protection as a Primitive Area beginning in 1932.
In the 1920s, the managers of the Forest Service engaged in both an internal and external struggle regarding the agency's mission.
and , Forest Service employees, each advocated setting aside some forest areas as wilderness off-limits to mining, logging, road construction and grazing.
The first primitive area was created in 1924 in New Mexico and is now named the Aldo Leopold Wilderness. But creation of primitive areas did not become a forest agency policy until 1929.
Externally, the , sought to expand parks from existing public lands, primarily national forest lands. The Forest Service responded by creating primitive areas. Initially these new wilderness areas received no special protections other than the official designation. Caribou Primitive area became a likely candidate for primitive status as it shares the length of its western border with the national park.
Caribou Primitive Area received greater protection in 1939, when Interior Secretary
sought to convince President
to combine the Forest Service and the National Park Service into a new agency under the management of the . Roosevelt declined to act, but the threat of moving the Forest Service out of the
resulted in greater protections for national forest wilderness areas. A congressional bill had earlier given the President authority to act on this new Department of Conservation.
In 1964, Caribou was among the first group of federally protected wildernesses created by the first . The Lassen forest also contains the 16,335-acre (6,611 ha) , also created in 1964.
Lassen National Forest, encompassing a large area, has many recreational opportunities with two large lakes nearby, a , and many campgrounds and hiking trails. The forest is easily accessible from San Francisco, Sacramento and Redding.
passes through the Forest and Park.
Bizz Johnson National Recreation Trail follows the rugged
canyon for 16 of the trail's 25-mile (40 km) length . Built on what was once the roadbed of Southern Pacific's 130-mile (210 km) Fernley and Lassen Branch Railway, it has been converted to a riding and hiking trail . There are 12 river crossings and two tunnels along the trail with the Susan River segment being the most scenic with views of the canyon, river and mountains. Some camping is allowed on portions of the trail but some areas have camping restrictions. The railroad operated from 1914 to 1956 and was officially abandoned by
in 1978. The trail has four distinct seasons because of the elevation changes. The trail begins at 4,200 feet (1,300 m) on the east side of the Sierra and Cascade Ranges in Susanville, rises to a high point of 5,500 feet (1,700 m) at Westwood Junction then descends to the trails' end in the town of Westwood at 5,100 feet (1,600 m) elevation.
The Subway Cave is a
cave located 1/2 mile north of , with developed stairs leading into the cave and guided tours offered seasonally on weekends. Parking and picnic areas are available.
Spencer Meadows National Recreation Trail is a six-mile (10 km) path through
groves, meadow areas, , and bubbling springs. Beginning at the junction of state routes
and , it goes through the forest and the Park, then connects with other trails inside the Park.
Heart Lake National Recreation Trail is more than three miles (5 km) in length and follows Martin Creek with views of Lassen Peak and
within the national park.
An historic
trail established in 1852 is the . A prospecting party led by
crossed from Indian Valley to Honey Lake Valley. Nobles was later hired to shift the stream of emigrants to the town of Shasta in hopes of increasing settlers' traffic into the town. The trail goes through
and past the north side of Lassen Volcanic National Park.
The Hat Creek Recreational Area of the forest has seven campgrounds scattered along the creek as well as large lava flows, lava tubes, hiking trails and views of Mount Lassen. Highway 89 follows Hat Creek through much of the forest.
is just south of the forest with Forest Service land and campgrounds on the west shore. Pacific Gas and Electric () operate the 28,257-acre (114.35 km2) lake which was acquired from Great Western Power Company in 1930 when they merged with P.G. and E. The North Fork of the Feather River is the primary source for Lake Almanor, as well as a number of freshwater springs and smaller rivers. The name of the lake is derived from the Great Western Power Company's Vice President, Guy C. Earl, who combined the names of his three daughters, Alice, Martha and Elanor. The Forest Service maintains 63 developed recreational sites and an indeterminate number of primitive campgrounds.
Old growth red fir tree in Lassen National Forest, California.
Peter Lassen will be long remembered with having a hospital, college, street, mountain, creek, national park, county, and national forest each carrying his name. He was ambitious, his timing was perfect, and, like his contemporary pioneer, , everything that could go wrong, did go wrong.
Lassen was murdered by an unknown person in the , Nevada Territory, two months after being profiled by Hutching's California Magazine.
The profile is contained in the February, 1859 edition of Hutching's. Lassen was murdered April 29, 1859. The murderer was never found, but the list of suspects is long: Disgruntled clients of the
or various business associates were among those suspected.
The conclusion of the magazine profile includes this quote from Lassen: "Beware of bad partners, and nine-tenths of the lawyers, and if need be, add the other tenth, and thus eschew law and lawyers altogether." Apparently his killer heeded the advice.
Lassen, Edward Clapper and Americus Wyatt, were on a silver mining expedition, camped in the Black Rock Desert north of
Territory. This was the beginning of the Comstock silver excitement in northern Nevada. Clapper and Lassen were shot and killed as the trio was breaking camp. Wyatt survived and was the only witness. Officially a band of Paiute Native Americans received blame but few pioneers believed the story.
Lassen's body was recovered and buried near his cabin at Honey Lake Valley. Clapper's remains remained in what is now known as Clapper Canyon. A partial skeleton was discovered there by hikers in 1991, and Clapper's remains have since been interred near Lassen's grave. Susanville, the seat of Lassen County is in the Honey Lake Valley.
Lassen was born on October 31, 1800 in Farum, Denmark and emigrated to Mexican California around 1840 from the Oregon Territory. Like Sutter, he acquired Mexican citizenship (1844) and applied for a land grant (1843) of 5 square leagues on the south bank of Deer Creek in what is now . This grant provided access to the , an important issue during the pioneer period for transportation of goods and people.
Lassen lost his estate around 1851 by mortgaging the land to further his business interests. He then migrated to the Honey Lake Valley where he attempted mining, and which is in modern-day Lassen County.
Lassen County was established on April 1, 1864, five years after his death.
The beginnings of Lassen National Forest began in 1891 with congressional passage of what has become known as the Forest Reserve Act. This bill was actually entitled: "An Act To Repeal Timber Culture Laws And For Other Purposes.".
The first federal forest reserves were created soon after President
signed the repeal into law. Section 24 of the act authorized the President of the United States to set aside
as forest reserves without further permission from Congress.
In addition to Harrison, President
set aside forest lands, as did President , until
put a stop to the practice in 1907, by banning additional set asides in six western states.
California was not among those six states but was later added to the ban.
Lassen Peak Reserve was not created until 1905, less than a month before Congress approved the Transfer Act, which took the reserves away from the
and the Department of Interior. Instead, the newly created U.S. Forest Service managed the lands under the Department of Agriculture. The reserves then became the National Forests. In 1908 Lassen absorbed portions of
and exchanged lands with
Lassen National Park was carved from the Lassen National Forest in 1916, when Congress approved the creation of the National Park Service, administered by the Interior department. Lassen Peak already enjoyed protection as a , set aside by Roosevelt in 1907.
The uneasy relationship between the
continued for several decades, perhaps culminating in 1931 when Congress forbade Lassen National Park from expanding its boundaries.
Earlier, in 1906, , Chief Forester in the Department of Agriculture, sought to move the national parks into the forest service. Pinchot was thwarted by Congressman , an ardent . Pinchot's goal was to subject the Parks to
and other aspects of his scientific management philosophy.
Later, in 1939, Interior Secretary
proposed the opposite-of combining the national parks and forests into an agency that would take a preservationist approach.
Library of Congress American Memory - Documentary Chronology of Selected Events in the Development of the American Conservation Movement,
. . September 30, 2007.
U.S. Statutes at Large, Vol. 33, Part 1, Chap. 288, p. 628. "An Act Providing for the transfer of forest reserves from the Department of Interior to the Department of Agriculture." H.R. 8460, Public Resolution No. 34.
Warbington, R Beardsley, Debby (2002), , , Pacific Southwest Region
An additional 240 acres (97 ha) of the Ishi wilderness is managed by the federal Bureau of Land Management for a total of 41,340 acres (16,730 ha).
Gerard, David The Origins of the Federal Wilderness System, Ch.6
Adkinson, Ron Wild Northern California The Globe Piquet Press, 2001 p. 204
"The Bizz" as the trail is sometimes referred to, is named after Harold T. "Bizz" Johnson, who served in the
, Lassen National Forest
US Forest Service map, Lassen National Forest 1990.
National Park Service Official website-Historynotes
A square league is 4,438 acres (17.96 km2)-Lolle, Andrew California, A History 2nd ed. p.114
Rolle, Andrew F. California, A History AHM Publishing Corp., 1969
Davis, Richard C. (September 29, 2005),
(pdf), The Forest History Society
U.S. Statutes at Large, Vol. 39, Part 1, Chap. 302, pp. 442-44. "An Act To establish the Lassen Volcanic National Park in the Sierra Nevada Mountains in the State of California, and for other purposes." H.R. 348, Public Act No. 184
Gerard, David The Origins of the Federal Wilderness System p.4, Ch.6
Wikimedia Commons has media related to .
— 3 hour 5 minute ecosystem video of the Lassen Region.
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Sundarbans redirects here, for other uses see
The Sundarbans (: ????????, Shundorb?n) is a
in . It is the largest single block of tidal
forest in the world. The Sundarbans covers approximately 10,000 square kilometres (3,900 sq mi) of which 60 percent is in
with the remainder in India. The Sundarbans is a .
is a , , and a
located in the Sundarbans
in the Indian state of . Sundarbans ,
are three protected forests in Bangladesh. This region is densely covered by mangrove , and is one of the largest reserves for the .
The name Sundarban can be literally translated as "beautiful forest" in the
(Shundor, "beautiful" and bon, "forest"). The name may have been derived from the Sundari trees (the mangrove species Heritiera fomes) that are found in Sundarbans in large numbers. Alternatively, it has been proposed that the name is a corruption of Samudraban, Shomudrob?n ("Sea Forest"), or Chandra-bandhe (name of a primitive tribe). However, the generally accepted view is the one associated with Sundari trees.
Village in a clearing of Sundarbans. Drawing by Frederic Peter Layard after an original sketch of 1839
House in Sundarbans with a pond and rice fields, 2010
The history of the area can be traced back to 200–300 AD. A ruin of a city built by
has been found in the Baghmara Forest Block. During the
period, the Mughal Kings leased the forests of the Sundarbans to nearby residents. Many criminals took refuge in the Sundarbans from the advancing armies of Emperor . Many have been known to be attacked by tigers. Many of the buildings which were built by them later fell to hands of Portuguese pirates, salt smugglers and
in the 17th century. Evidence of the fact can be traced from the ruins at Netidhopani and other places scattered all over Sundarbans. The legal status of the forests underwent a series of changes, including the distinction of being the first
forest in the world to be brought under scientific management. The area was mapped first in Persian, by the
as early as 1764 following soon after proprietary rights were obtained from the
by the British
in 1757. Systematic management of this forest tract started in the 1860s after the establishment of a Forest Department in the Province of , in . The management was entirely designed to extract whatever treasures were available, but labour and lower management mostly were staffed by locals, as the British had no expertise or adaptation experience in mangrove forests.
The first Forest Management Division to have jurisdiction over the Sundarbans was established in 1869. In 1875 a large portion of the
was declared as
forests under the Forest Act, 1865 (Act VIII of 1865). The remaining portions of the forests were declared a reserve forest the following year and the forest, which was so far administered by the civil administration district, was placed under the control of the Forest Department. A Forest Division, which is the basic forest management and administration unit, was created in 1879 with the headquarters in , Bangladesh. The first management plan was written for the period 1893–98.
In 1911, it was described as a tract of waste country which had never been surveyed, nor had the census been extended to it. It then stretched for about 266 kilometres (165 mi) from the mouth of the
to the mouth of the
river and was bordered inland by the three settled districts of the , Khulna and . The total area (including water) was estimated at 16,900 square kilometres (6,526 sq mi). It was a water-logged jungle, in which tigers and other wild beasts abounded. Attempts at reclamation had not been very successful. The Sundarbans was everywhere intersected by river channels and creeks, some of which afforded water communication throughout the Bengal region both for
and for native boats.
The Sundarban forest lies in the vast delta on the
formed by the super confluence of the ,
rivers across southern . The seasonally flooded
lie inland from the mangrove forests on the coastal fringe. The forest covers 10,000 square kilometres (3,900 sq mi) of which about 6,000 square kilometres (2,300 sq mi) are in Bangladesh. It became inscribed as a
site in 1997. The Indian part of Sundarbans is estimated to be about 4,110 square kilometres (1,590 sq mi), of which about 1,700 square kilometres (660 sq mi) is occupied by waterbodies in the forms of river, canals and creeks of width varying from a few meters to several kilometres.
The Sundarbans is intersected by a complex network of
waterways,
and small islands of salt-tolerant mangrove forests. The interconnected network of waterways makes almost every corner of the forest accessible by boat. The area is known for the
(Panthera tigris tigris), as well as numerous fauna including species of birds, ,
and snakes. The fertile soils of the delta have been subject to intensive human use for centuries, and the ecoregion has been mostly converted to intensive agriculture, with few enclaves of forest remaining. The remaining forests, taken together with the Sundarbans mangroves, are important habitat for the endangered tiger. Additionally, the Sundarbans serves a crucial function as a protective barrier for the millions of inhabitants in and around
against the floods that result from the . The Sundarbans has also been enlisted among the finalists in the .
image of Sundarbans, released by
image of Sundarbans, released by
The mangrove-dominated
– the Sundarbans – is a complex
comprising one of the three largest single tracts of
of the world. Situated mostly in , a small portion of it lies in India. The Indian part of the forest is estimated to be about 19 percent, while the Bangladeshi part is 81 percent. To the south t to the east it is bordered by the
and to the north there is a sharp interface with intensively cultivated land. The natural drainage in the upstream areas, other than the main river channels, is everywhere impeded by extensive embankments and . The Sundarbans was originally measured (about 200 years ago) to be of about 16,700 square kilometres (6,400 sq mi). Now it has dwindled into about 1/3 of the original size. The total land area today is 4,143 square kilometres (1,600 sq mi), including exposed
with a total area of 42 square kilometres (16 sq mi); the remaining water area of 1,874 square kilometres (724 sq mi) encompasses rivers, small streams and canals. Rivers in the Sundarbans are meeting places of salt water and freshwater. Thus, it is a region of transition between the freshwater of the rivers originating from the Ganges and the saline water of the Bay of Bengal.
The Sundarbans along the Bay of Bengal has evolved over the millennia through natural deposition of upstream sediments accompanied by intertidal segregation. The physiography is dominated by deltaic formations that include innumerable drainage lines associated with surface and subaqueous levees, splays and tidal flats. There are also marginal marshes above mean tide level, tidal sandbars and islands with their networks of tidal channels, subaqueous distal bars and proto-delta clays and silt sediments. The Sundarbans' floor varies from 0.9 to 2.11 metres (3.0 to 6.9 ft) above sea level.
Biotic factors here play a significant role in physical coastal evolution, and for
a variety of
have developed which include beaches, estuaries, permanent and semi-permanent swamps, tidal flats, , coastal dunes, back dunes and levees. The mangrove vegetation itself assists in the formation of new landmass and the intertidal vegetation plays a significant role in swamp morphology. The activities of mangrove fauna in the intertidal mudflats develop
features that trap and hold sediments to create a substratum for mangrove seeds. The morphology and evolution of the
dunes is controlled by an abundance of
plants. Creepers, grasses and sedges stabilise sand dunes and uncompacted sediments. The Sunderbans mudflats (Banerjee, 1998) are found at the estuary and on the deltaic islands where low velocity of river and tidal current occurs. The flats are exposed in low tides and submerged in high tides, thus being changed morphologically even in one tidal cycle. The interior parts of the mudflats are magnificent home of luxuriant mangroves.
Sundarbans features two
— "Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests" (IM0162) and "Sundarbans mangroves" (IM1406).
The Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests are a
of . It represents the brackish swamp forests that lie behind the Sundarbans Mangroves, where the salinity is more pronounced. The freshwater ecoregion is an area where the water is only slightly brackish and becomes quite fresh during the rainy season, when the freshwater plumes from the Ganges and the Brahmaputra rivers push the intruding salt water out and bring a deposit of silt. It covers an area of 14,600 square kilometres (5,600 sq mi) of the vast , extending from the northern part of
and finishing at the mouth of the
with scattered portions extending into India's
state. The Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests lie between the upland
and the -water
bordering the .
A victim of large-scale clearing and settlement to support one of the densest human populations in Asia, this ecoregion is under a great threat of extinction. Hundreds of years of habitation and exploitation have exacted a heavy toll on this ecoregion's habitat and biodiversity. There are two protected areas – Narendrapur (110 km2) and Ata Danga Baor (20 km2) that cover a mere 130 km2 of the ecoregion. Habitat loss in this ecoregion is so extensive, and the remaining habitat is so fragmented, that it is difficult to ascertain the composition of the original vegetation of this ecoregion. According to Champion and Seth (1968), the freshwater swamp forests are characterised by Heritiera minor, Xylocarpus molluccensis, Bruguiera conjugata, Sonneratia apetala, , and , with , , and
along the fringing banks.
The Sundarbans Mangroves ecoregion on the coast forms the seaward fringe of the
and is the world's largest
ecosystem, with 20,400 square kilometres (7,900 sq mi) of area covered. The dominant mangrove species
is locally known as sundri or sundari. Mangrove forests are not home to a great variety of plants. They have a thick canopy, and the undergrowth is mostly seedlings of the mangrove trees. Besides the sundari, other species that make up the forest include Avicennia spp., Xylocarpus mekongensis, , Sonneratia apetala, , Cereops decandra, , , and
Twenty-six of the fifty broad mangrove types found in the world grow well in the Sundarbans. The commonly identifiable vegetation that grow in the dense mangrove forests at the Sundarbans are salt water mixed forest, mangrove scrub, brackish water mixed forest, littoral forest, wet forest and wet alluvial grass forests. The Bangladesh mangrove vegetation of the Sundarbans differs greatly from other non-deltaic coastal mangrove forests and upland forests associations. Unlike the former, the
are of minor importance.
is generally defined as the successive occupation of a site by different plant communities. In an accreting mudflats the outer community along the sequence represents the pioneer community which is gradually replaced by the next community representing the seral stages and finally by a climax community typical of the climatic zone. Troup suggested that succession began in the newly accreted land created by fresh deposits of eroded soil. The pioneer vegetation on these newly accreted sites is , followed by
and . As the ground is elevated as a result of soil deposition, other trees make their appearance. The most prevalent, though one of the late species to appear, is . As the level of land rises through accretion and the land is only occasionally flooded by tides,
begins to appear.
Sundari tree ()
Golpata ()
A total 245 genera and 334 plant species were recorded by
in 1903. While most of the mangroves in other parts of the world are characterised by members of the , Avicenneaceae or , the mangroves of Bangladesh are dominated by the
and . Dominant flora includes:
The Sundarbans flora is characterised by the abundance of sundari (), gewa (), goran (Ceriops decandra) and keora (Sonneratia apetala) all of which occur prominently throughout the area. The characteristic tree of the forest is the sundari (), from which the name of the forest had probably been derived. It yields a hard wood, used for building houses and making boats, furniture and other things. New forest accretions is often conspicuously dominated by keora (Sonneratia apetala) and tidal forests. It is an indicator species for newly accreted mudbanks and is an important species for wildlife, especially spotted deer (). There is abundance of dhundul or passur () and kankra () though distribution is discontinuous. Among palms, Poresia coaractata, Myriostachya wightiana and golpata (), and among grasses spear grass () and khagra (Phragmites karka) are well distributed.
The varieties of the forests that exist in Sundarbans include mangrove scrub, ,
mixed forest and . Besides the forest, there are extensive areas of
with typical dune vegetation, open
on sandy soils and raised areas supporting a variety of terrestrial shrubs and trees. Since Prain's report there have been considerable changes in the status of various mangrove species and taxonomic revision of the man-grove flora. However, very little exploration of the botanical nature of the Sundarbans has been made to keep up with these changes. Differences in vegetation have been explained in terms of freshwater and low salinity influences in the Northeast and variations in
and . The Sundarbans has been classified as a moist tropical forest demonstrating a whole mosaic of , comprising primary colonisation on new
to more mature beach forests. Historically vegetation types have been recognised in broad correlation with varying degrees of water salinity, freshwater flushing and physiography.
deers () are widely seen
A rhesus macaque ()
The Sundarbans provides a unique ecosystem and a rich wildlife habitat. According to the 2011 tiger census, the Sundarbans have about 270 tigers. Although previous rough estimates had suggested much higher figures close to 300, the 2011 census provided the first ever scientific estimate of tigers from the area Tiger attacks are frequent in the Sundarbans. Between 100 and 250 people are killed per year.
There is much more wildlife here than just the endangered
(). Most importantly, mangroves are a transition from the marine to freshwater and terrestrial systems, and provide critical habitat for numerous species of small fish, crabs, shrimps and other crustaceans that adapt to feed and shelter, and reproduce among the tangled mass of roots, known as , which grow upward from the anaerobic mud to get the supply of oxygen. , , , common grey mongooses, foxes, , , , and
are also found in abundance in the Sundarbans.
A 1991 study has revealed that the Bangladeshi part of the Sundarbans supports diverse biological resources including at least 150 species of commercially important fish, 270 species of birds, 42 species of mammals, 35 reptiles and 8 amphibian species. This represents a significant proportion of the species present in Bangladesh (i.e. about 30% of the reptiles, 37% the birds and 34% of the mammals) and includes a large number of species which are now extinct elsewhere in the country. Two amphibians, 14 reptiles, 25 aves and five mammals are endangered. The Sundarbans is an important wintering area for migrant water birds and is an area suitable for watching and studying avifauna.
The management of wildlife is restricted to, firstly, the protection of fauna from poaching, and, secondly, designation of some areas as wildlife sanctuaries where no extraction of
is allowed and where the wildlife face few disturbances. Although the fauna of Bangladesh have diminished in recent times and the Sundarbans has not been spared from this decline, the mangrove forest retains several good wildlife habitats and their associated fauna. Of these, the tiger and dolphin are target species for planning wildlife management and tourism development. There are high profile and vulnerable mammals living in two contrasting environments, and their statuses and management are strong indicators of the general condition and management of wildlife. Some of the species are protected by legislation, notably by the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) Order, 1973 (P.O. 23 of 1973).
A saltwater crocodile () in Sundarbans
The fertile soils of the delta have been subject to intensive human use for centuries, and the ecoregion has been mostly converted to intensive agriculture, with few enclaves of forest remaining. The remaining forests, together with the Sundarbans mangroves, are important habitats for the endangered Bengal tiger (). The forest also contains leopard () and several other smaller predators such as the jungle cats (), fishing cats (), and leopard cats ().
Several predators dwell in the labyrinth of channels, branches and roots that poke up into the air. This is the only mangrove ecoregion that harbours the Indo-Pacific region's largest predator, the Bengal tiger. Unlike in other habitats, tigers live here and swim among the mangrove islands, where they hunt scarce prey such as the
deer (axis axis),
(Muntiacus muntjak),
(Sus scrofa), and even
(Macaca mulatta). It is estimated that there are now 500 Bengal tigers and about 30,000 spotted deer in the area. The tigers regularly attack and kill humans who venture into the forest, human deaths ranging from 30–100 per year.
Some of the reptiles are predators too, including two species of crocodiles, the
(Crocodylus porosus) and
(Crocodylus palustris), as well as the
(Gavialis gangeticus) and the
lizards (Varanus salvator), all of which hunt on both land and water.
() roam the waterways.
sighted in the Sundarbans
The forest is also rich in bird life, with 170 species including the endemic
(Pelargopsis amauroptera) and the globally threatened
(Leptoptilos javanicus) and
(Heliopais personata) and birds of prey such as the
(Pandion haliaetus),
(Haliaeetus leucogaster) and
(Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus). The Sundarbans was designated a
on 21 May 1992. Some of the more popular birds found in this region are , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , eastern knots, , , , white-eyed pochards and .
Some of the fish and
found in the Sundarbans are , , , , , , river eels, , , , , , , , skipping frogs,
and . One particularly interesting fish is the , a gobioid that climbs out of the water into mudflats and even climbs trees.
The Sundarbans National Park houses an excellent number of reptiles as well. Some of the common ones are , , , , , , , salvator , hard shelled batgun terrapins, Russels vipers, mouse gekkos, , curviers, , , , ,
and . The river terrapin (), Indian flap-shelled turtles (), peacock soft-shelled turtles (), yellow monitors (), water monitors (), and Indian pythons () are some of the resident species.
of Sunderbans, drawing from 1877
, drawing from 1894
Forest inventories reveal a decline in standing volume of the two main commercial mangrove species – sundari ( spp.) and
(Excoecaria agallocha) — by 40% and 45% respectively between 1959 and 1983. Despite a total ban on all killing or capture of
other than fish and some , it appears that there is a consistent pattern of depleted biodiversity or loss of species (notably at least six mammals and one important reptile) in the 20th century, and that the "ecological quality of the original mangrove forest is declining".
The endangered species that live within the Sundarbans and extinct species that used to be include the Royal Bengal tigers, ,
(Batagur baska), , , ground turtles,
and king crabs (horse shoe). Some species such as hog deer (), water buffalos (),
or swamp deer (), Javan rhinoceros (), single horned rhinoceros () and the mugger crocodiles or marsh crocodiles () started to become extinct in the Sundarbans towards the middle of the 20th century, due to extensive poaching and man hunting by the British. There are several other threatened mammal species, such as the capped langurs (), smooth-coated otters (), Oriental small-clawed otters (), and great Bengal civets ().
Sundarbans a few months after
in Sundarbans
The physical development processes along the coast are influenced by a multitude of factors, comprising wave motions, micro and macro-tidal cycles and long shore currents typical to the coastal tract. The shore currents vary greatly along with the . These are also affected by
action. Erosion and accretion through these forces maintains varying levels, as yet not properly measured, of physiographic change whilst the mangrove vegetation itself provides a remarkable stability to the entire system. During each monsoon season almost all the Bengal Delta is submerged, much of it for half a year. The sediment of the lower delta plain is primarily advected inland by monsoonal coastal setup and cyclonic events. One of the greatest challenges people living on the
may face in coming years is the threat of rising sea levels caused mostly by
in the region and partly by climate change.
In many of the Bangladesh's mangrove wetlands, freshwater reaching the mangroves was considerably reduced from the 1970s due to diversion of freshwater in the upstream area by neighbouring
through the use of the
bordering , Bangladesh. Also, the Bengal
is slowly tilting towards the east due to neo- movement, forcing greater freshwater input to the Bangladesh Sundarbans. As a result, the salinity of the Bangladesh Sundarbans is much lower than that of the Indian side. A 1990 study noted that there "is no evidence that environmental degradation in the
or a 'greenhouse' induced rise in sea level have aggravated floods in Bangladesh"; however, a 2007 report by , "Case Studies on Climate Change and World Heritage" has stated that an anthropogenic 45-centimetre (18 in) rise in sea level (likely by the end of the 21st century, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), combined with other forms of anthropogenic stress on the Sundarbans, could lead to the destruction of 75 percent of the Sundarbans mangroves. Already,
have disappeared under the sea, and
is half submerged.
boat in Sundarbans
Logging boat in the Sundarbans
Ferry boat in the Sundarbans
The Sundarbans plays an important role in the economy of the southwestern region of
as well as in the national economy. It is the single largest source of
in the country. The forest provides raw materials for wood based industries. In addition to traditional forest produce like timber, fuelwood, pulpwood etc., large scale harvest of non-wood forest products such as thatching materials, , bees-wax, fish, crustacean and mollusc resources of the forest takes place regularly. The vegetated tidal lands of the Sundarbans also function as an essential habitat, produces nutrients and purifies water. The forest also traps nutrient and sediment, acts as a storm barrier, shore stabiliser and energy storage unit. Last but not the least, the Sunderbans provides a wonderful aesthetic attraction for local and foreign tourists.
The forest also has immense protective and productive functions. Constituting 51% of the total
of , it contributes about 41% of total forest revenue and accounts for about 45% of all timber and fuel wood output of the country. A number of industries (e.g. newsprint mill, match factory, hardboard, boat building, furniture making) are based on the raw materials obtained from the Sundarbans ecosystem. Various
help generate considerable employment and income generation opportunities for at least half a million poor coastal population. It also provides natural protection to life and properties of the coastal population in the
The Sundarbans has a population of over 4 million but much of it is mostly free of permanent human habitation. Despite human habitations and a century of economic exploitation of the forest well into the late forties, the Sundarbans retained a forest closure of about 70% according to the
(ODA) of the United Kingdom in 1979.
Police Boat Patrolling in , West Bengal
The Sundarbans area is one of the most densely populated in the world, and the population is increasing. As a result, half of this ecoregion's mangrove forests have been cut down to supply fuelwood and other natural resources. Despite the intense and large-scale exploitation, this still is one of the largest contiguous areas of mangroves in the world. Another threat comes from deforestation and water diversion from the rivers inland, which causes far more silt to be brought to the estuary, clogging up the waterways.
The Directorate of Forest is responsible for the administration and management of Sundarban National Park in West Bengal. The
(PCCF), Wildlife & Bio-Diversity & ex-officio Chief Wildlife Warden, West Bengal is the senior most executive officer looking over the administration of the park. The Chief Conservator of Forests (South) & Director, Sundarban Biosphere Reserve is the administrative head of the park at the local level and is assisted by a Deputy Field Director and an Assistant Field Director. The park area is divided into two ranges, overseen by range forest officers. Each range is further sub-divided into beats. The park also has floating watch stations and camps to protect the property from poachers.
The park receives financial aid from the State Government as well as the
under various Plan and Non-Plan Budgets. Additional funding is received under the
from the Central Government. In 2001, a grant of US$20,000 was received as a preparatory assistance for promotion between India and Bangladesh from the .
A new Khulna Forest Circle was created in Bangladesh back in 1993 to preserve the forest, and Chief Conservators of Forests have been posted since. The direct administrative head of the Division is the Divisional Forest Officer, based at Khulna, who has a number of professional, subprofessional and support staff and logistic supports for the implementation of necessary management and administrative activities. The basic unit of management is the compartment. There are 55 compartments in four Forest Ranges and these are clearly demarcated mainly by natural features such as rivers, canals and creeks.
A map of the protected areas of the Indian Sunderbans, showing the boundaries of the Tiger Reserve, the National Park and the three Wildlife Sanctuaries, conservation and lodging centres, subsistence towns, and access points. The entire forested (dark green) area constitutes the Biosphere Reserve, with the remaining forests outside the national park and wildlife sanctuaries being given the status of a .
The Bangladesh part of the forest lies under two forest divisions, and four administrative ranges viz Chandpai (),
(Khulna), and
() and has sixteen forest stations. It is further divided into fifty-five compartments and nine blocks. There are three wildlife sanctuaries established in 1977 under the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) Order, 1973 (P.O. 23 of 1973).The West Bengal part of the forest lies under the district of South & North 24 Parganas.
Protected areas cover 15% of the Sundarbans mangroves including
and , in , ,
in Bangladesh.
Main article:
The Sundarban National Park is a , , and a
in , . It is part of the Sundarbans on the , and adjacent to the Sundarbans Reserve Forest in . The
is densely covered by
forests, and is one of the largest reserves for the . It is also home to a variety of bird, reptile and
species, including the . The present Sundarbans National Park was declared as the core area of Sundarbans Tiger Reserve in 1973 and a wildlife sanctuary in 1977. On 4 May 1984 it was declared a National Park.
Main article:
Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuary is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The region supports several mangroves, including: sparse stands of Gewa () and dense stands of Goran ( tagal), with discontinuous patches of Hantal palm () on drier ground, river banks and levees. The fauna of the sanctuary is very diverse with some 40 species of mammals, 260 species of birds and 35 species of reptiles. The greatest of these being the Bengal Tiger of which an estimated 350 remain in the Bangladesh Sundarbans. Other large mammals are , Chital horin (), Indian otter and . Five species of marine turtles frequent the coastal zone and two endangered reptiles are present – the
Main article:
Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary extends over an area of 31,227 hectares (77,160 acres). Sundari trees (Heritiera fomes) dominate the flora, interspersed with Gewa () and Passur (Xylocarpus mekongensis) with Kankra () occurring in areas subject to more frequent flooding. There is an understory of Shingra (Cynometra ramiflora) where, soils are drier and Amur (Aglaia cucullata) in wetter areas and Goran ( decandra) in more saline places. Nypa palm (Nypa fruticans) is widespread along drainage lines.
Main article:
Sundarbans South Wildlife Sanctuary extends over an area of 36,970 hectares (91,400 acres). There is evidently the greatest seasonal variation in salinity levels and possibly represents an area of relatively longer duration of moderate salinity where Gewa () is the dominant woody species. It is often mixed with Sundri, which is able to displace in circumstances such as artificially opened canopies where Sundri does not regenerate as effectively. It is also frequently associated with a dense understory of Goran ( tagal) and sometimes Passur.
Main article:
Sajnakhali Wildlife Sanctuary is a 362-square-kilometre (140 sq mi) area in the northern part of the Sundarbans delta in , , . The area is mainly mangrove scrub, forest and swamp. It was set up as a sanctuary in 1976. It is home to a rich population of different species of wildlife, such as , , , , , , , , , , , , , and migratory birds.
Idol of , the deity of snakes
, the goddess of Sundarbans
The Sundarbans is celebrated through numerous Bengali folk songs and dances, often centred around the folk heroes, gods and goddesses specific to the Sunderbans (like
and ) and to the Lower Gangetic Delta (like
and ). The Bengali folk epic
mentions Netidhopani and has some passages set in the Sundarbans during the heroine 's quest to bring her husband Lakhindar back to life.
The area provides the setting for several novels by , (e.g. ). Sundarbaney Arjan Sardar, a novel by Shibshankar Mitra, and , a novel by , are based on the rigors of lives of villagers and fishermen living in the Sunderbans region, and are woven into the Bengali psyche to a great extent. Part of the plot of 's
winning novel,
is set in the Sundarbans. This forest is adopted as the setting of 's short story "The Japanese Wife" and the subsequent . Most of the plot of an internationally acclaimed novelist, 's 2004 novel, , is set in the Sundarbans.The plot centres on a headstrong American cetologist who arrives to study a rare species of river dolphin, enlisting a local fisherman and translator to aid her. The book also mentions two accounts of the Bonbibi story of "Dukhey's Redemption." The SunPadma Nadir Majhi was made into a movie by .
The Sunderbans has been the subject of a detailed and well-researched scholarly work on Bonbibi (a 'forest goddess' venerated by Hindus), on the relation between the islanders and tigers and on conservation and how it is perceived by the inhabitants of the Sundarbans, as well as numerous non-fiction books, including The Man-Eating Tigers of Sundarbans by Sy Montegomery for a young audience, which was shortlisted for the . In Up The Country,
discusses her travels through the Sunderbans. Numerous documentary movies have been made about the Sunderbans, including the 2003
production Shining Bright about the . The acclaimed
documents the lives of villagers, especially , in the Sundarbans.
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